Molecular genetic approach to treatment and diagnosis of alcohol and drug dependence

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides compositions and methods useful for diagnosing, treating, and monitoring alcohol dependence and disorders and susceptibility to alcohol dependence disorders, as well as drug related dependence and disorders.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/096,675, filed Apr. 12, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/606,271, filed Sep. 7, 2012, which is entitled to priority pursuant to 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/532,781, filed on Sep. 9, 2011. The entire content of each are incorporated herein by reference in their entirely.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Grant AA032903, AA001016, AA012964 and AA010522 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

Alcohol abuse and dependence are widespread and it is estimated that 14 million American adults abused alcohol or were dependent on it in 1992 and that approximately 10% of Americans will be affected by alcohol dependence sometime during their lives. Alcohol dependence, characterized by the preoccupation with alcohol use, tolerance, and withdrawal, is a chronic disorder with genetic, psychosocial, and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. Studies have demonstrated the significance of opioids (i.e., beta-endorphin), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), γ-amino-butyric acid (GABA) and glutamate for the development and maintenance of alcohol dependence.

Despite the number of studies performed in this area, few drugs for alcohol dependence are approved in the U.S. The approved drugs are disulfiram, naltrexone, Vivitrex®/Vivitrol® (a long-acting depot formulation of naltrexone), and acamprosate. Disulfiram is an irreversible inhibitor of aldehyde dehydrogenase leading to increased levels of acetaldehyde, a toxic intermediate in alcohol metabolism. Patients who take disulfiram and drink alcohol experience an increased dilation of arterial and capillary tone producing hypotension, nausea, vomiting, flushing, headache and possibly in some, worse symptoms. Therefore, the concept behind the use of disulfiram is that the alcohol-dependent individual associates drinking with unpleasant adverse events and, as a result, avoids further alcohol consumption. Nevertheless, recent research shows that disulfiram has limited utility because compliance is low unless it is administered by a partner or spouse.

There is a long felt need in the art for compositions and methods useful for diagnosing, treating, and monitoring alcohol disorders and susceptibility to alcohol disorders.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to molecular genetics techniques to predict which alcohol or drug dependent subjects are amenable to specific treatments and to predict those subjects for which such treatment might produce an adverse event.

The present invention also relates to methods and assays useful for determining whether a subject has a predisposition to developing an addictive disease or disorder, determining whether a subject will be responsive to particular treatments, and compositions and methods useful for treating a subject in need of treatment.

The present invention also relates to compositions and methods useful for treating subjects having an addictive disease or disorder (or who are predisposed thereto) based on identification of genetic markers indicative of a subject being predisposed to such disease or disorder or being predisposed to responding to treatment thereof.

The present invention also relates to molecular genetics techniques and/or other ways to subtype groups by biological or psychological measures or variables to determine which subjects will respond best to treatment for an addictive disease or disorder.

These and other aspects that will become apparent are based on the discovery that molecular genetics techniques can be used to predict which alcohol or drug dependent subjects are amenable to specific treatments and to predict those subjects for which such treatment might produce an adverse event. Various aspects of the invention are described in further detail below.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Abbreviations, Generic Names, and Acronyms

5-HT—serotonin

5-HT₃—a subtype of serotonin receptor, the serotonin-3 receptor

5-HTOL—5-hydroxytryptophol

5-HTT—serotonin transporter (also referred to as SERT, 5HTT, HTT, and OCD1)

5-HTTLPR—serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region

ADE—alcohol deprivation effect

ADI—adolescence diagnostic interview

ASPD—antisocial personality disorder

AUD—alcohol use disorder

BBCET—Brief Behavioral Compliance Enhancement Treatment

BED—binge eating disorder

b.i.d.—twice a day

B_(max)—maximum specific paroxetine binding density

BRENDA—Biopsychosocial, Report, Empathy, Needs, Direct advice, and Assessment

CBI—combined behavioral intervention

CBT—Cognitive Behavioral Coping Skills Therapy, also referred to as cognitive behavioral therapy

CDT—carbohydrate-deficient transferrin

ChIPS—children's interview for psychiatric syndrome

CMDA—cortico-mesolimbic dopamine

DA—dopamine

DDD—drinks/drinking day

DSM—Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

EOA—early-onset alcoholic(s)

GABA-γ—amino-butyric acid (also referred to as γ-amino butyric acid and γ-aminobutyric acid)

GGT-γ—glutamyl transferase

ICD—impulse control disorder

IP—intraperitoneal

K_(d)—affinity constant

K_(m)—equilibrium constant

L—long

LOA—late-onset alcoholic(s)

MET—Motivational Enhancement Therapy

miRNA—micro RNA

MM—Medical Management

NAc—nucleus accumbens

Naltrexone—a μ opioid receptor antagonist

ncRNA—non-coding RNA

NMDA—N-methyl-D-aspartate

NOS—not otherwise specified

Ondansetron (Zofran®)—a serotonin receptor antagonist

P—alcohol-preferring rats

S—short

SERT—serotonin transporter (also referred to as 5-HTT)

SLC6A4—human 5-HT transporter gene.

SNP—single nucleotide polymorphism

SSRI—selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor

Topiramate (Topamax@)—an anticonvulsant

TSF—Twelve-Step Facilitation Therapy (e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous)

V_(max)—maximum serotonin uptake velocity

VTA—ventral tegmental area

Definitions

In describing and claiming the invention, the following terminology will be used in accordance with the definitions set forth below. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention. As used herein, each of the following terms has the meaning associated with it in this section. Specific values listed below for radicals, substituents, and ranges are for illustration only; they do not exclude other defined values or other values within defined ranges for the radicals and substituents.

As used herein, the articles “a” and “an” refer to one or to more than one, i.e., to at least one, of the grammatical object of the article. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element.

The term “about,” as used herein, means approximately, in the region of, roughly, or around. When the term “about” is used in conjunction with a numerical range, it modifies that range by extending the boundaries above and below the numerical values set forth. In general, the term “about” is used herein to modify a numerical value above and below the stated value by a variance of 20%.

One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that addictive disorders such as those related to alcohol or drugs, does mean that a subject is dependent unless specifically defined as such.

The term “additional therapeutically active compound,” in the context of the present invention, refers to the use or administration of a compound for an additional therapeutic use other than just the particular disorder being treated. Such a compound, for example, could include one being used to treat an unrelated disease or disorder, or a disease or disorder which may not be responsive to the primary treatment for the addictive disease or disorder being treated. Disease and disorders being treated by the additional therapeutically active agent include, for example, hypertension and diabetes.

As used herein, the term “aerosol” refers to suspension in the air. In particular, aerosol refers to the particlization or atomization of a formulation of the invention and its suspension in the air.

Cells or tissue are “affected” by a disease or disorder if the cells or tissue have an altered phenotype relative to the same cells or tissue in a subject not afflicted with a disease, condition, or disorder.

As used herein, an “agonist” is a composition of matter that, when administered to a mammal, such as a human, enhances or extends a biological activity of interest. Such effect may be direct or indirect.

The term “alcohol abuser,” as used herein, refers to a subject who meets DSM IV criteria for alcohol abuse (i.e., “repeated use despite recurrent adverse consequences”) but is not dependent on alcohol.

As used herein, an “analog” of a chemical compound is a compound that, by way of example, resembles another in structure but is not necessarily an isomer (e.g., 5-fluorouracil is an analog of thymine).

An “antagonist” is a composition of matter that when administered to a mammal, such as a human, inhibits or impedes a biological activity attributable to the level or presence of an endogenous compound in the mammal. Such effect may be direct or indirect.

As used herein, the term “anti-alcohol agent” refers to any active drug, formulation, or method that exhibits activity to treat or prevent one or more symptom(s) of alcohol addiction, alcohol abuse, alcohol intoxication, and/or alcohol withdrawal, including drugs, formulations and methods that significantly reduce, limit, or prevent alcohol consumption in mammalian subjects.

The term “appetite suppression,” as used herein, is a reduction, a decrease or, in cases of excessive food consumption, an amelioration in appetite. This suppression reduces the desire or craving for food. Appetite suppression can result in weight loss or weight control as desired.

The term “average drinking,” as used herein, refers to the mean number of drinks consumed during a one week period. The term “average drinking” is used interchangeably herein with the term “average level of drinking.”

A “biomarker” is a specific biochemical in the body which has a particular molecular feature that makes it useful for measuring the progress of disease or the effects of treatment, or for measuring a process of interest.

A “compound,” as used herein, refers to any type of substance or agent that is commonly considered a drug, or a candidate for use as a drug, as well as combinations and mixtures of the above.

A “control” subject is a subject having the same characteristics as a test subject, such as a similar type of dependence, etc. The control subject may, for example, be examined at precisely or nearly the same time the test subject is being treated or examined. The control subject may also, for example, be examined at a time distant from the time at which the test subject is examined, and the results of the examination of the control subject may be recorded so that the recorded results may be compared with results obtained by examination of a test subject.

A “test” subject is a subject being treated.

As used herein, a “derivative” of a compound refers to a chemical compound that may be produced from another compound of similar structure in one or more steps, as in replacement of H by an an alkyl, acyl, or amino group.

As used herein, the term “diagnosis” refers to detecting a risk or propensity to an addictive related disease or disorder. In any method of diagnosis exist false positives and false negatives. Any one method of diagnosis does not provide 100% accuracy.

A “disease” is a state of health of a subject wherein the subject cannot maintain homeostasis, and wherein if the disease is not ameliorated then the subject's health continues to deteriorate. In contrast, a “disorder” in a subject is a state of health in which the subject is able to maintain homeostasis, but in which the subject's state of health is less favorable than it would be in the absence of the disorder. However, the definitions of “disease” and “disorder” as described above are not meant to supersede the definitions or common usage related to specific addictive diseases or disorders.

A disease, condition, or disorder is “alleviated” if the severity of a symptom of the disease or disorder, the frequency with which such a symptom is experienced by a patient, or both, are reduced.

As used herein, an “effective amount” means an amount sufficient to produce a selected effect, such as alleviating symptoms of a disease or disorder. In the context of administering two or more compounds, the amount of each compound, when administered in combination with another compound(s), may be different from when that compound is administered alone. The term “more effective” means that the selected effect is alleviated to a greater extent by one treatment relative to the second treatment to which it is being compared.

The term “elixir,” as used herein, refers in general to a clear, sweetened, alcohol-containing, usually hydroalcoholic liquid containing flavoring substances and sometimes active medicinal agents.

The term “excessive drinker,” as used herein, refers to men who drink more than 21 alcohol units per week and women who consume more than 14 alcohol units per week. One standard drink is 0.5 oz of absolute alcohol, equivalent to 10 oz of beer, 4 oz of wine, or 1 oz of 100-proof liquor. These individuals are not dependent on alcohol but may or may not meet DSM IV criteria for alcohol abuse.

As used herein, a “functional” molecule is a molecule in a form in which it exhibits a property or activity by which it is characterized. A functional enzyme, for example, is one that exhibits the characteristic catalytic activity by which the enzyme is characterized.

The term “heavy drinker,” as used herein, refers to men who drink more than 14 alcohol units per week and women who consume more than 7 alcohol units per week. One standard drink is 0.5 oz of absolute alcohol, equivalent to 10 oz of beer, 4 oz of wine, or 1 oz of 100-proof liquor. These individuals are not dependent on alcohol but may or may not meet DSM IV criteria for alcohol abuse.

The term “heavy drinking”, as used with respect to the alcohol-dependent population of Example 1, refers to drinking at least about 21 standard drinks/week for women and at least 30 drinks/week for men during the 90 days prior to enrollment in the study and is more fully described therein.

A “heavy drinking day,” as used herein, refers to the consumption by a man or woman of more than about five or four standard drinks per drinking day, respectively.

The term “heavy drug use,” as used herein, refers to the use of any drug of abuse, including, but not limited to, cocaine, methamphetamine, other stimulants, phencyclidine, other hallucinogens, marijuana, sedatives, tranquilizers, hypnotics, opiates at intervals or in quantities greater than the norm. The intervals of use include intervals such as at least once a month, at least once a week, and at least once a day. “Heavy drug use” is defined as testing “positive” for the use of that drug on at least 2 occasions in any given week with at least 2 days between testing occasions.

As used herein, the term “inhaler” refers both to devices for nasal and pulmonary administration of a drug, e.g., in solution, powder and the like. For example, the term “inhaler” is intended to encompass a propellant driven inhaler, such as is used to administer antihistamine for acute asthma attacks, and plastic spray bottles, such as are used to administer decongestants.

The term “inhibit a complex,” as used herein, refers to inhibiting the formation of a complex or interaction of two or more proteins, as well as inhibiting the function or activity of the complex. The term also encompasses disrupting a formed complex. However, the term does not imply that each and every one of these functions must be inhibited at the same time.

As used herein, an “instructional material” includes a publication, a recording, a diagram, or any other medium of expression which can be used to communicate the usefulness of a compound of the invention in the kit for effecting alleviation of the various diseases or disorders recited herein. Optionally, or alternately, the instructional material may describe one or more methods of alleviating the diseases or disorders in a subject. The instructional material of the kit of the invention may, for example, be affixed to a container which contains the identified compound invention or be shipped together with a container which contains the identified compound. Alternatively, the instructional material may be shipped separately from the container with the intention that the instructional material and the compound be used cooperatively by the recipient.

“Intensity of drinking” refers to the number of drinks, which can be equated with values such as drinks/day, drinks/drinking day, etc. Therefore, greater intensity of drinking means more drinks/day, or drinks/drinking day, etc.

As used herein, a “ligand” is a compound that specifically binds to a target compound or molecule. A ligand “specifically binds to” or “is specifically reactive with” a compound when the ligand functions in a binding reaction which is determinative of the presence of the compound in a sample of heterogeneous compounds.

A “receptor” is a compound or molecule that specifically binds to a ligand.

The term “measuring the level of expression” or “determining the level of expression” as used herein refers to any measure or assay which can be used to correlate the results of the assay with the level of expression of a gene or protein of interest. Such assays include measuring the level of mRNA, protein levels, etc. and can be performed by assays such as northern and western blot analyses, binding assays, immunoblots, etc. The level of expression can include rates of expression and can be measured in terms of the actual amount of an mRNA or protein present.

The term “nasal administration” in all its grammatical forms refers to administration of at least one compound of the invention through the nasal mucous membrane to the bloodstream for systemic delivery of at least one compound of the invention. The advantages of nasal administration for delivery are that it does not require injection using a syringe and needle, it avoids necrosis that can accompany intramuscular administration of drugs, and trans-mucosal administration of a drug is highly amenable to self administration.

“Obesity” is commonly referred to as a condition of increased body weight due to excessive fat. Drugs to treat obesity are generally divided into three groups: (1) those that decrease food intake, such as drugs that interfere with monoamine receptors, such as noradrenergic receptors, serotonin receptors, dopamine receptors, and histamine receptors; (2) those that increase metabolism; and (3) those that increase thermogenesis or decrease fat absorption by inhibiting pancreatic lipase (Bray, 2000. Nutrition, 16:953-960 and Leonhardt et al., 1999, Eur. J. Nutr., 38:1-13). Obesity has been defined in terms of body mass index (BMI). BMI is calculated as weight (kg)/[height (m)]², according to the guidelines of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the World Health Organization (WHO). Physical status: The use and interpretation of anthropometry. Geneva. Switzerland: World Health Organization 1995. WHO Technical Report Series), for adults over 20 years old, BMI falls into one of these categories: below 18.5 is considered underweight, 18.5-24.9 is considered normal, 25.0-29.9 is considered overweight, and 30.0 and above is considered obese.

The term “per application” as used herein refers to administration of a drug or compound to a subject.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes any of the standard pharmaceutical carriers, such as a phosphate buffered saline solution, water, emulsions such as an oil/water or water/oil emulsion, and various types of wetting agents. The term also encompasses any of the agents approved by a regulatory agency of the US Federal government or listed in the US Pharmacopeia for use in animals, including humans.

As used herein, the term “physiologically acceptable” ester or salt means an ester or salt form of the active ingredient which is compatible with any other ingredients of the pharmaceutical composition, and which is not deleterious to the subject to which the composition is to be administered.

A “predisposition” to an addictive disease or disorder refers to situations in which a subject has an increased chance of abusing a substance such as alcohol or a drug or becoming addicted to alcohol or a drug or other addictive diseases or disorders.

The term “prevent,” as used herein, means to stop something from happening, or taking advance measures against something possible or probable from happening. In the context of medicine, “prevention” generally refers to action taken to decrease the chance of getting a disease or condition.

The term “problem drinker,” as used herein, encompasses individuals who drink excessively and who report that their alcohol consumption is causing them problems. Such problems include, for example, driving while intoxicated, problems at work caused by excessive drinking, and relationship problems caused by excessive drinking by the subject.

The term “psychosocial management program,” as used herein, relates to the use of various types of counseling and management techniques used to supplement the combination pharmacotherapy treatment of addictive and alcohol-related diseases and disorders.

“Reduce”—see “inhibit”.

The term “reduction in drinking”, as used herein, refers to a decrease in drinking according to one or more of the measurements of drinking such as heavy drinking, number of drinks/day, number of drinks/drinking day, etc.

The term “regulate” refers to either stimulating or inhibiting a function or activity of interest.

A “sample,” as used herein, refers to a biological sample from a subject, including, but not limited to, normal tissue samples, diseased tissue samples, biopsies, blood, saliva, feces, semen, tears, and urine. A sample can also be any other source of material obtained from a subject which contains cells, tissues, or fluid of interest as interpreted in the context of the claim and the type of assay to be performed using that sample.

By “small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)” is meant, inter alia, an isolated dsRNA molecule comprising both a sense and an anti-sense strand. In one aspect, it is greater than 10 nucleotides in length. siRNA also refers to a single transcript that has both the sense and complementary antisense sequences from the target gene, e.g., a hairpin. siRNA further includes any form of dsRNA (proteolytically cleaved products of larger dsRNA, partially purified RNA, essentially pure RNA, synthetic RNA, recombinantly produced RNA) as well as altered RNA that differs from naturally occurring RNA by the addition, deletion, substitution, and/or alteration of one or more nucleotides.

By the term “specifically binds,” as used herein, is meant a molecule which recognizes and binds a specific molecule, but does not substantially recognize or bind other molecules in a sample, or it means binding between two or more molecules as in part of a cellular regulatory process, where the molecules do not substantially recognize or bind other molecules in a sample.

The term “standard,” as used herein, refers to something used for comparison. For example, it can be a known standard agent or compound which is administered or added and used for comparing results when adding a test compound, or it can be a standard parameter or function which is measured to obtain a control value when measuring an effect of an agent or compound on a parameter or function. Standard can also refer to an “internal standard,” such asn agent or compound which is added at known amounts to a sample and is useful in determining such things as purification or recovery rates when a sample is processed or subjected to purification or extraction procedures before a marker of interest is measured. Internal standards are often a purified marker of interest which has been labeled, such as with a radioactive isotope, allowing it to be distinguished from an endogenous marker.

The term “one standard drink,” as used herein, is 0.5 oz of absolute alcohol, equivalent to 10 oz of beer, 4 oz of wine, or 1 oz of 100-proof liquor.

A “subject” of diagnosis or treatment is a mammal, including a human.

The term “subject comprises a predisposition to the early onset of alcoholism,” as used herein, refers to a subject who has, or is characterized by, a predisposition to the early onset of alcoholism.

The term “symptom,” as used herein, refers to any morbid phenomenon or departure from the normal in structure, function, or sensation, experienced by the patient and indicative of disease. In contrast, a sign is objective evidence of disease. For example, a bloody nose is a sign. It is evident to the patient, doctor, nurse and other observers.

As used herein, the term “treating” may include prophylaxis of the specific disease, disorder, or condition, or alleviation of the symptoms associated with a specific disease, disorder or condition and/or preventing or eliminating the symptoms. A “prophylactic” treatment is a treatment administered to a subject who does not exhibit signs of a disease or exhibits only early signs of the disease for the purpose of decreasing the risk of developing pathology associated with the disease. “Treating” is used interchangeably with “treatment” herein.

A “therapeutic” treatment is a treatment administered to a subject who exhibits signs of pathology for the purpose of diminishing or eliminating those signs.

A “therapeutically effective amount” of a compound is that amount of compound which is sufficient to provide a beneficial effect to the subject to which the compound is administered.

The term “pharmaceutically-acceptable salt” refers to salts which retain the biological effectiveness and properties of the compounds of the present invention and which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable. In many cases, the compounds of the present invention are capable of forming acid and/or base salts by virtue of the presence of amino and/or carboxyl groups or groups similar thereto.

Embodiments

The polymorphisms identified herein also include their related miRNA, mRNA, ncRNA, or protein expression, levels, or states of function, or other biochemical products or chemical associations, which may serve as biomarkers.

In an aspect, a method of treating an addictive disease or disorder is provided, comprising: administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of an antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT3, wherein the patient's serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 is known to have at least one, including two, three, four, five or more, of rs1176719 (including the AA genotype), rs1150226 (including the AG genotype), rs17614942 (including the AC genotype), rs1042173 (including the TT genotype), rs1176713 (including the GG genotpe), LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, or any combination thereof. For example, the patient's serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 is known to have rs1176719 and rs1150226; rs1176719, rs1150226 and rs17614942; rs1176719, rs1150226, 5-HTTLPR, and rs1042173; rs1176719, rs1150226, rs17614942, 5-HTTLPR, and rs1042173; rs1176719, rs1150226, rs1176713, 5-HTTLPR, and rs1042173; rs1176719, rs1150226, rs17614942, 5-HTTLPR, rs1042173; rs1176719 and rs1176713; rs1176719, rs1176713, 5-HTTLPR, and rs1042173; rs1176719, rs1176713, rs17614942, 5-HTTLPR, and rs1042173; rs1176713, 5-HTTLPR, and rs1042173; rs1176713, rs1150226, 5-HTTLPR, rs1042173; rs1176713, rs17614942, 5-HTTLPR, and rs1042173; rs1176713, rs1150226, rs17614942, 5-HTTLPR, and rs1042173; rs1150226, rs1176719, rs17614942 and rs1176713; rs1150226, rs1176719 and rs1176713; rs1150226, rs17614942 and rs1176713; and rs1176719, rs17614942 and rs1176713. At any of the above, the genotype can be AA, AT, AC, AG, TT, TA, TG, TC, CC, CA, CG, CT, GG, GC, GT, GA or LL, LS or SS.

In an aspect, a method of treating an addictive disease or disorder is provided, comprising: administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of an antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃, wherein the patient's serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 is known to have a genotype selected from sets (a)-(q):

-   -   (a.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of         rs1150226;     -   (b.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of         rs1150226 and the AC genotype of rs17614942;     -   (c.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of         rs1150226 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype         of rs1042173;     -   (d.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of         rs1150226 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the LL genotype         of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173;     -   (e.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of         rs1150226 and the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the LL genotype         of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173;     -   (f.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of         rs1150226 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the GG genotype         of rs1176713 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT         genotype of rs1042173;     -   (g.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the GG genotype of         rs1176713;     -   (h.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the GG genotype of         rs1176713 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype         of rs1042173;     -   (i.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the GG genotype of         rs1176713 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the LL genotype         of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173;     -   (j.) the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the LL genotype of         5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173;     -   (k.) the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the AG genotype of         rs1150226 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype         of rs1042173;     -   (l.) the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the AC genotype of         rs17614942 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype         of rs1042173;     -   (m.) the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the AG genotype of         rs1150226 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the LL genotype         of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173;     -   (n.) the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AA genotype of         rs1176719 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the GG genotype         of rs1176713;     -   (o.) the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AA genotype of         rs1176719 and the GG genotype of rs1176713;     -   (p.) the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AC genotype of         rs17614942 and the GG genotype of rs1176713; and,     -   (q.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AC genotype of         rs17614942 and the GG genotype of rs1176713.

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (a).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (b).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (c).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (d).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (e).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (f.).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (g).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (h).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (i).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (j).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (k).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (l).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (m).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (n).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (o).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (p).

In another aspect, the patient is known to have a genotype of set (q).

In another aspect, a method of treating an addictive disease or disorder is provided, comprising: administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of an antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃, wherein the patient's serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 is known to have the the AA or AG genotype of rs1150226.

In another aspect, a method of treating an addictive disease or disorder is provided, comprising: administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of an antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃, wherein the patient's serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 is known to have the the GG genotype of rs1150226 and the AA or GG genotype of rs1176719.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for determining the genotypes of a biological sample of a patient, comprising: testing the biological sample of the patient for at least one of genotype sets (a)-(e):

-   -   (a) the AA genotype of rs1176719;     -   (b) the AG genotype of rs1150226;     -   (c) the AC genotype of rs17614942;     -   (d) the GG genotype of rs1176713; and,     -   (e) the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR and the TT genotype of         rs1042173.

In another aspect, the biological sample is (a) tested for at least two of genotype sets (a)-(e).

In another aspect, the biological sample is tested for at least three of genotype sets (a)-(e).

In another aspect, the biological sample is tested for at least four of genotype sets (a)-(e).

In another aspect, the biological sample is tested for all five of genotype sets (a)-(e).

In another aspect, the biological sample is tested for a combination of genotypes selected from one of groups (I)-(XXVI):

-   -   (I.) (a)+(b)     -   (II.) (a)+(c)     -   (III.) (a)+(d)     -   (IV.) (a)+(e)     -   (V.) (b)+(c)     -   (VI.) (b)+(d)     -   (VII.) (b)+(e)     -   (VIII.) (c)+(d)     -   (Ix.) (c)+(e)     -   (X.) (d)+(e)     -   (XI.) (a)+(b)+(c)     -   (XII.) (a)+(b)+(d)     -   (XIII.) (a)+(b)+(e)     -   (XIV.) (a)+(c)+(d)     -   (XV.) (a)+(c)+(e)     -   (XVI.) (a)+(d)+(e)     -   (XVII.) (b)+(c)+(d)     -   (XVIII.) (b)+(c)+(e)     -   (XIX.) (b)+(d)+(e)     -   (XX.) (c)+(d)+(e)     -   (XXI.) (a)+(b)+(c)+(d)     -   (XXIII.) (a)+(b)+(c)+(e)     -   (XXIII.) (a)+(b)+(d)+(e)     -   (XXIV.) (a)+(c)+(d)+(e)     -   (XXV.) (b)+(c)+(d)+(e)     -   (XXVI.) (a)+(b)+(c)+(d)+(e)

In another aspect, method of genotype testing further comprises: publishing the results of the testing.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for determining the genotypes of a biological sample of a patient, consisting essentially of: testing the biological sample of the patient for at least one of genotype sets (a)-(e).

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for determining the genotypes of a biological sample of a patient, consisting of: testing the biological sample of the patient for at least one of genotype sets (a)-(e).

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for determining the genotypes of a biological sample of a patient, comprising: testing the biological sample of the patient for at least one of genotype sets (b)-(e):

-   -   (b) the AG genotype of rs1150226;     -   (c) the AC genotype of rs17614942;     -   (d) the GG genotype of rs1176713; and,     -   (e) the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR and the IT genotype of         rs1042173.

In another aspect, the biological sample is tested for at least two of genotype sets (b)-(e).

In another aspect, the biological sample is tested for at least three of genotype sets (b)-(e).

In another aspect, the biological sample is tested for all four of genotype sets (b)-(e).

In another aspect, the biological sample is tested for a combination of genotypes selected from one of groups (i)-(xi):

-   -   i. (b)+(c)     -   ii. (b)+(d)     -   iii. (b)+(e)     -   iv. (c)+(d)     -   v. (c)+(e)     -   vi. (d)+(e)     -   vii. (b)+(c)+(d)     -   viii. (b)+(c)+(e)     -   ix. (b)+(d)+(e)     -   x. (c)+(d)+(e)     -   xi. (b)+(c)+(d)+(e)

In another aspect, method of genotype testing, further comprises: publishing the results of the testing.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for determining the genotypes of a biological sample of a patient, consisting essentially of: testing the biological sample of the patient for at least one of genotype sets (b)-(e).

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for determining the genotypes of a biological sample of a patient, consisting of: testing the biological sample of the patient for at least one of genotype sets (b)-(e).

Publishing can include printing the results on a readable medium (e.g., paper) or communicating the results electronically (e.g., an electronic message made available via an e-mail, text message, phone message, or to a computing device).

The biological sample is any sample from a patient that contains genetic information capable of being tested for at least one of the listed genotypes. Examples include saliva (e.g., a buccal swab), semen, and blood.

The genotype testing can be performed according to known methods, which include, dynamic allele-specific hybridization (DASH), molecular beacons, high-density oligonucleotide SNP arrays, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), PCR-based methods (e.g., tetra primer ARMS-PCR), flap endonuclease methodology, primer extension methodology (e.g., Illumina's Infinium technology), 5′-nuclease methodology (e.g., Taq DNA polymerase's 5′-nuclease (e.g., Applied Biosystems Taqman® allelic discrimination assay)), oligonucleotide ligase assay, single strand conformation polymorphism, temperature gradient gel electrophoresis, denaturing high performance liquid chromatography, and capillary electrophoresis (e.g., Applied Biosystems SNPlex® technology).

Examples of the antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃ include ondansetron, tropisetron, granisetron, palonosetron, dolasetron, and metocclopromide.

In another aspect, the antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃ is ondansetron.

Examples of the dosage of the antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃ (e.g., ondansetron) include: (a) about 0.1-1000 μg/kg per application; (b) about 1 μg/kg; (c) about 2 μg/kg; (d) about 3 μg/kg; (e) about 4 μg/kg; (f) about 5 μg/kg; (g) about 6 μg/kg; (h) about 7 μg/kg; (i) about 8 μg/kg; (j) about 9 μg/kg; (k) about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, about 20, about 21, about 22, about 23, about 24, about 25, about 26, about 27, about 28, about 29, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 90, to about 100 μg/kg; and, (1) about 100, about 200, about 300, about 400, about 500, about 600, about 700, about 800, about 900, to about 1000 μg/kg.

Examples of the timing of administration include administering: (a) once a day, (b) twice a day, (c) once a week, (d) twice a week, (e) once a month, (f) twice a month, (g) once every 3 months, and (h) once every 6 months.

In another aspect, the addictive disease or disorder is selected from the group consisting of alcohol-related diseases and disorders, obesity-related diseases and disorders, eating disorders, impulse control disorders, nicotine-related disorders, amphetamine-related disorders, methamphetamine-related disorders, cannabis-related disorders, cocaine-related disorders, hallucinogen use disorders, inhalant-related disorders, benzodiazepine abuse or dependence related disorders, opioid-related disorders, gambling, sexual disorders, computer use related disorders, and electronic use related disorders.

In another aspect, the addictive disease or disorder is an alcohol-related disease or disorder.

In another aspect, the alcohol-related disease or disorder is selected from the group consisting of early onset alcoholism, late onset alcoholism, alcohol-induced psychotic disorder with delusions, alcohol abuse, heavy drinking, excessive drinking, problem drinking, alcohol intoxication, alcohol withdrawal, alcohol intoxication delirium, alcohol withdrawal delirium, alcohol-induced persisting dementia, alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder, alcohol dependence, alcohol-induced psychotic disorder with hallucinations, alcohol-induced mood disorder, alcohol-induced or associated bipolar disorder, alcohol-induced or associated post traumatic stress disorder, alcohol-induced anxiety disorder, alcohol-induced sexual dysfunction, alcohol-induced sleep disorder, alcohol-induced or associated gambling disorder, alcohol-induced or associated sexual disorder, alcohol-related disorder not otherwise specified, alcohol intoxication, and alcohol withdrawal.

In another aspect, the alcohol-related disease or disorder is early onset alcoholism. In another aspect, the alcohol-related disease or disorder is late onset alcoholism.

In another aspect, the response from the treatment, comprises: a reduction in drinking. Examples of reduction in drinking include, but are not limited to reduction of (a) heavy drinking, (b) excessive drinking, (c) drinks/day, (d) percentage of subjects not drinking heavily, and (e) drinks/drinking day. Examples of reduction in drinking also include, but are not limited to, effective treatment of (A) alcohol abuse (as defined in DSM-IV), (B) alcohol dependence (as defined in DSM-IV), and (C) alcohol use disorder (as defined in DSM-V). Examples of reduction in drinking also include, but are not limited to increasing the (I) percentage of subjects with no heavy drinking, (II) percentage of subjects who are abstinent, and (III) days abstinent. Examples of reduction in drinking also include, but are not limited to maintaining (i) reduced drinking, (ii) reduced heavy drink, (iii) reduced binge drinking, and (iv) abstinence.

In another aspect, the method reduces the quantity of alcohol consumed compared with the amount of alcohol consumed before said treatment or compared with a control subject not receiving said treatment. In another aspect, the alcohol consumption comprises heavy drinking or excessive drinking.

In another aspect, the method improves the physical or psychological sequalae associated with alcohol consumption compared with a control subject not receiving said treatment.

In another aspect, the method increases the abstinence rate of said subject compared with a control subject not receiving said treatment.

In another aspect, the method reduces the average level of alcohol consumption compared with the level before said treatment or compared with a control subject not receiving said treatment.

In another aspect, the method reduces alcohol consumption and increases abstinence compared with the alcohol consumption and abstinence before said treatment or compared with a control subject not receiving said treatment.

In another aspect, the subject is submitted to a psychosocial management program.

In another aspect, the psychosocial management program is selected from the group consisting of Brief Behavioral Compliance Enhancement Treatment; Cognitive Behavioral Coping Skills Therapy; Motivational Enhancement Therapy; Twelve-Step Facilitation Therapy; Combined Behavioral Intervention; Medical Management; psychoanalysis; psychodynamic treatment; Biopsychosocial, Report, Empathy, Needs, Direct Advice and Assessment; and, computer-delivered education or treatment.

In another aspect, the subject is further subjected to hypnosis or acupuncture.

In another aspect, effective amounts of at least two antagonists are administered.

In another aspect, effective amounts of at least three antagonists are administered.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of selecting patients with an addictive disease or disorder who will be responsive to treatment with an antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃, comprising: determining whether the patient's serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 has a genotype selected from sets (a)-(q).

In another aspect, the method of selecting, further comprises: administering an antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃ to the patient, if the patient satisfies one of sets (a)-(q).

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of treating a patient with an addictive disease or disorder, comprising:

-   -   (a.) determining whether the patient, in the patient's serotonin         transporter gene SLC6A4, has one of genotype sets (a)-(q); and,     -   (b.) administering an antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃         to the patient, if the patient satisfies one of (a)-(q).

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of predicting a response to treatment for an addictive disease or disorder in a subject comprising: determining whether the patient, in the patient's serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4, has one of genotypes (a)-(q).

In another aspect, the present invention further comprises: administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a second therapeutic agent (e.g., topiramate and/or naltrexone).

The present invention further encompasses the use of adjunctive treatments and therapy such as psychosocial management regimes, hypnosis, and acupuncture.

One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that in some instances a patient being treated for an addictive disorder is not necessarily dependent. Such patients include, for example, patients who abuse alcohol, drink heavily, drink excessively, are problem drinkers, or are heavy drug users. The present invention provides compositions and methods for treating or preventing these behaviors in non-dependent patients.

In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions and methods for improving the physical or psychological sequalae associated with alcohol consumption compared with a control subject not receiving the treatment.

In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions and methods for increasing the abstinence rate of a subject compared with a control subject not receiving the treatment.

In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions and methods for reducing the average level of alcohol consumption in a subject compared with the level of alcohol consumption before the treatment or compared with the level of alcohol consumption by a control subject not receiving the treatment.

In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions and methods for reducing alcohol consumption and for increasing abstinence compared with the alcohol consumption by the subject before treatment or with a control subject not receiving the treatment.

In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions and methods for treating a subject with a predisposition to early-onset alcoholism.

In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions and methods for treating a subject with a predisposition to late-onset alcoholism.

One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that there are multiple parameters or characteristics of alcohol consumption which may characterize a subject afflicted with an alcohol-related disease or disorder. It will also be appreciated that combination therapies may be effective in treating more than one parameter, and that there are multiple ways to analyze the effectiveness of treatment. The parameters analyzed when measuring alcohol consumption or frequency of alcohol consumption include, but are not limited to, heavy drinking days, number of heavy drinking days, average drinking days, number of drinks per day, days of abstinence, number of individuals not drinking heavily or abstinent over a given time period, and craving. Both subjective and objective measures can be used to analyze the effectiveness of treatment. For example, a subject can self-report according to guidelines and procedures established for such reporting. The procedures can be performed at various times before, during, and after treatment. Additionally, assays are available for measuring alcohol consumption. These assays include breath alcohol meter readings, measuring serum CDT and GGT levels, and measuring 5-HTOL urine levels.

When combination therapy is used, the timing of administration of the combination can vary. First example, the first compound and a second compound can be administered nearly simultaneously. Other examples include (a) the first compound being administered prior to the second compound, (b) the first compound being administered subsequent to the second compound, and (c) if three or more compounds are administered, one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the three or more compounds can be administered simultaneously or in varying order.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method of treating, comprising administering at least two compounds selected from the group consisting of topiramate, ondansetron, and naltrexone. In one aspect, topiramate and ondansetron are used.

Because the serotonin system has intimate connections and is modulated in the brain by other neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids, and cannabinoid, the present invention also encompasses the use of medications and drugs that affect the structure and function of these other neurotransmitters when combined with any serotonergic agent (including ondansetron). In one aspect, the combination is efficacious for individuals with the polymorphisms described herein. In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions, compounds and methods that are associated with these co-modulating neurotransmitters (i.e., dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids, and cannabinoid), including, but not limited to, topiramate, baclofen, gabapentin, naltrexone, nalmefene, and rimonabant-in combination with any serotonergic agent (including but not limited to ondansetron, selective serotonin re-uptake blockers, and other agonists or antagonists of other serotonin receptors or moieties) can produce a therapeutic effect to improve the clinical outcomes for individuals who use, abuse, misuse, or are dependent on alcohol. Because abused drugs are predicted to work through similar mechanisms, the present invention further provides combinations of these co-modulating drugs with any other serotonergic agent to be used to treat individuals with any substance use, abuse, misuse, dependence, or habit-forming behavior with the polymorphisms described herein or anywhere else in the serotonergic or co-modulating neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, GABA, glutamate, opioids, and cannabinoid), either alone or in combination.

In a further aspect, the combination pharmacotherapy treatment is used in conjunction with behavioral modification or therapy.

The dosage of the active compound(s) being administered will depend on the condition being treated, the particular compound, and other clinical factors such as age, sex, weight, and health of the subject being treated, the route of administration of the compound(s), and the type of composition being administered (tablet, gel cap, capsule, solution, suspension, inhaler, aerosol, elixir, lozenge, injection, patch, ointment, cream, etc). It is to be understood that the present invention has application for both human and veterinary use.

The drugs can be administered in formulations that contain all drugs being used, or the drugs can be administered separately. In some cases, it is anticipated that multiple doses/times of administration will be useful. The present invention further provides for varying the length of time of treatment.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a composition comprising: an antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃. In another aspect, the composition further comprises a second therapeutic agent. In another aspect, the composition further comprises a third therapeutic agent.

Topiramate (C₁₂H₂₁NO₈S; IUPAC name: 2,3:4,5-Bis-O-(1-methylethylidene)-beta-D-fructopyranose sulfamate; CAS Registry No. 97240-79-4) is disclosed herein as a drug useful in combination drug therapy. Examples of topiramate dosages include: (a) about 15, about 25, about 35, about 35, about 55, about 65, about 75, about 85, about 95, about 100, about 200, about 300, about 400, about 500, about 600, about 700, about 800, about 900, about 1000, about 1100, about 1200, about 1300, about 1400, about 1500, about 1600, about 1700, about 1800, about 1900, about 2000, about 2100, about 2200, about 2300, about 2400, to about 2500 mg/day, (b) about 25-1000 mg/day, (c) about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, about 100, about 200, about 300, about 400, to about 500 mg/day, (f) about 275 mg/day. (g) about 1 mg/day, (h) about 1 mg/kg, (i) about 10 mg/kg, (j) about 100 mg/kg, and (k) about 0.1, about 0.2, about 0.3, about 0.4, about 0.5, about 0.6, about 0.7, about 0.8, about 0.9, about 1.0, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90 to about 100 mg/kg/day.

An aspect of psychotropic drugs is to produce weight gain. These increases in weight gain can induce a range of metabolic problems including abnormal sugar, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism. Because topiramate can cause weight loss and improve endocrine function, it is proposed herein that topiramate may be used to ameliorate weight gain caused by other psychotropic drugs with which it is combined as well as alcohol and any other abused drugs.

An adverse event of topiramate is cognitive impairment. In the general population, this is reported by 2.4% of individuals who take topiramate (Johnson & Johnson Pharmaceutical Research & Development. Investigator's Brochure: Topiramate (RWJ-17021-000), 10th ed.: December 2005). In the substance abuse field, the occurrence rate of cognitive impairment is about 18.7% (Johnson B A, Ait-Daoud N, Bowden C L et al. Oral topiramate for treatment of alcohol dependence: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2003, 361:1677-1685). Topiramate-associated cognitive effects are due to its anti-glutaminergic properties. It is, therefore, not obvious that ondansetron, a serotonin-3 receptor antagonist, will alleviate these complaints of cognitive impairment. Ondansetron appears to have cholinergic effects, perhaps through interactions with the GABA system that seem to ameliorate topiramate-associated cognitive impairment. Hence, the rate of cognitive impairment reported by this triple combination would be less than that for topiramate on its own.

Ondansetron (C₁₈H₁₉N₃O; CAS Registry No. 99614-02-5; IUPAC name: 9-methyl-3-[(2-methyl-1H-imidazol-1-yl)methyl]-1,2,3,9-tetrahydrocarbazol-4-one) is disclosed herein as a drug useful alone or as part of combination drug therapy. Ondansetron is a 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist and has functionally opposite effects to SSRIs and blocks serotonin agonism at the 5-HT₃ receptor. The dosage and treatment regimen for administering ondansetron when it is being used as one compound of a combination therapy can be varied based on the other drug or drugs with which it is being administered, or based on other criteria such as the age, sex, health, and weight of the subject.

The present invention further provides for the use of other drugs such as naltrexone (C₂₀H₂₃NO₄; 17-(Cyclopropylmethyl)-4,5a-epoxy-3,14-dihydroxymorphinan-6-one hydrochloride; CAS Registry No. 16590-41-3) as part of the drug combination therapy disclosed herein. Examples of naltrexone dosages include: (a) 10 mg/day, (b) 50 mg/day, (c) 100 mg/day, (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 250, to 300 mg per application, (e) 10-50 mg per application, and (f) 25 mg per application.

Naltrexone also has adverse events—nausea and vomiting—that reduce compliance to it. Indeed, about 15% of individuals in alcohol trials are unable to tolerate a naltrexone dose of 50 mg/day. This has led to the development of depot formulations that release naltrexone slowly to reduce the incidence of nausea and vomiting. Nevertheless, these depot formulation(s) appear to have similar compliance rates to the oral form of the medication. Ondansetron reduces nausea and decreases vomiting by slowing gut motility. Therefore, a combination that adds ondansetron to naltrexone will diminish the nausea and vomiting caused by naltrexone. This is a therapeutic advance because many more people will be able to tolerate the treatment due to increased compliance, and higher doses than the typically administered naltrexone dose of 50 mg/day can be given to improve the therapeutic response.

The present invention provides for multiple methods for delivering the compounds of the invention. The compounds may be provided, for example, as pharmaceutical compositions in multiple formats as well, including, but not limited to, tablets, capsules, pills, lozenges, syrups, ointments, creams, elixirs, suppositories, suspensions, inhalants, injections (including depot preparations), and liquids.

The invention further encompasses treating and preventing obesity, i.e., for affecting weight loss and preventing weight gain. Obesity is a disorder characterized by the accumulation of excess fat in the body. Obesity has been recognized as one of the leading causes of disease and is emerging as a global problem. Increased instances of complications such as hypertension, non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, arteriosclerosis, dyslipidemia, certain forms of cancer, sleep apnea, and osteoarthritis have been related to increased instances of obesity in the general population In one aspect, the invention encompasses administering to a subject in need thereof a combination therapy to induce weight loss. For example, subjects having a BMI of greater than about 25 (25.0-29.9 is considered overweight) are identified for treatment. In one aspect, the individuals have a BMI of greater than 30 (30 and above is considered obese). In another aspect, a subject may be targeted for treatment to prevent weight gain. In one embodiment, an individual is instructed to take at least one compound of the invention at least once daily and at least a second compound of the invention at least once daily. The compound may be in the form of, for example, a tablet, a lozenge, a liquid, etc. In one aspect, a third compound is also taken daily. In one embodiment, compounds may be taken more than once daily. In another embodiment, compounds are taken less than once daily. The dosages can be determined based on what is known in the art or what is determined to be best for a subject of that age, sex, health, weight, etc. Compounds useful for treating obesity according to the methods of the invention, include, but are not limited to, topiramate, naltrexone, and ondansetron. See Weber (U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 20070275970) and McElroy (U.S. Pat. No. 6,323,236) for additional information and techniques for administering drugs useful for treating obesity, addictive disorders, and impulse control disorders, and for determining dosage schemes.

Pharmaceutically-acceptable base addition salts can be prepared from inorganic and organic bases. Salts derived from inorganic bases, include by way of example only, sodium, potassium, lithium, ammonium, calcium and magnesium salts. Salts derived from organic bases include, but are not limited to, salts of primary, secondary and tertiary amines, such as alkyl amines, dialkyl amines, trialkyl amines, substituted alkyl amines, di(substituted alkyl) amines, tri(substituted alkyl) amines, alkenyl amines, dialkenyl amines, trialkenyl amines, substituted alkenyl amines, di(substituted alkenyl) amines, tri(substituted alkenyl) amines, cycloalkyl amines, di(cycloalkyl) amines, tri(cycloalkyl) amines, substituted cycloalkyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkyl amines, trisubstituted cycloalkyl amines, cycloalkenyl amines, di(cycloalkenyl) amines, tri(cycloalkenyl) amines, substituted cycloalkenyl amines, disubstituted cycloalkenyl amines, trisubstituted cycloalkenyl amines, aryl amines, diaryl amines, triaryl amines, heteroaryl amines, diheteroaryl amines, triheteroaryl amines, heterocyclic amines, diheterocyclic amines, triheterocyclic amines, mixed di- and tri-amines where at least two of the substituents on the amine are different and are selected from the group consisting of alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and the like. Also included are amines where the two or three substituents, together with the amino nitrogen, form a heterocyclic or heteroaryl group. Examples of suitable amines include, by way of example only, isopropylamine, trimethyl amine, diethyl amine, tri(iso-propyl) amine, tri(n-propyl) amine, ethanolamine, 2-dimethylaminoethanol, tromethamine, lysine, arginine, histidine, caffeine, procaine, hydrabamine, choline, betaine, ethylenediamine, glucosamine, N-alkylglucamines, theobromine, purines, piperazine, piperidine, morpholine, N-ethylpiperidine, and the like. It should also be understood that other carboxylic acid derivatives would be useful in the practice of this invention, for example, carboxylic acid amides, including carboxamides, lower alkyl carboxamides, dialkyl carboxamides, and the like.

Pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts may be prepared from inorganic and organic acids. Salts derived from inorganic acids include hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like. Salts derived from organic acids include acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, malic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluene-sulfonic acid, salicylic acid, and the like.

Psychosocial Intervention and Management

The drug combination treatments of the present invention can be further supplemented by providing to subjects a form of psychosocial intervention and/or management, such as Brief Behavioral Compliance Enhancement Treatment (BBCET). BBCET, a standardized, manual-guided, brief (i.e., delivered in about 15 minutes), psychosocial adherence enhancement procedure, emphasizes that medication compliance is crucial to changing participants' drinking behavior (Johnson et al., Brief Behavioral Compliance Enhancement Treatment (BBCET) manual. In: Johnson B A, Ruiz P, Galanter M, eds. Handbook of clinical alcoholism treatment. Baltimore, Md.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2003, 282-301). Brief interventions (Edwards et al., J. Stud. Alcohol. 1977, 38:1004-1031) such as BBCET, have been shown to benefit treatment of alcohol dependence. BBCET was modeled on the clinical management condition in the National Institute of Mental Health collaborative depression trial, which was used as an adjunct to the medication condition for that study (Fawcett et al. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1987, 23:309-324). BBCET has been used successfully as the psychosocial treatment platform in the single-site and multi-site efficacy trials of topiramate for treating alcohol dependence (Johnson et al., Lancet. 2003, 361:1677-1685; Johnson et al., JAMA, 2007, 298:1641-1651). It is delivered by trained clinicians, including nurse practitioners and other non-specialists. Uniformity and consistency of BBCET delivery are ensured by ongoing training and supervision. BBCET is copyrighted material (Johnson et al., Brief Behavioral Compliance Enhancement Treatment (BBCET) manual. In: Johnson B A, Ruiz P, Galanter M, eds. Handbook of clinical alcoholism treatment. Baltimore, Md.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2003, 282-301).

The present invention further encompasses the use of psychosocial management regimens other than BBCET, including, but not limited to, Cognitive Behavioral Coping Skills Therapy (CBT) (Project MATCH Research Group. Matching Alcoholism Treatments to Client Heterogeneity: Project MATCH posttreatment drinking outcomes. J Stud Alcohol. 1997; 58:7-29), Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) (Project MATCH Research Group. Matching Alcoholism Treatments to Client Heterogeneity: Project MATCH posttreatment drinking outcomes. J. Stud. Alcohol. 1997, 58:7-29), Twelve-Step Facilitation Therapy (TSF) (Project MATCH Research Group. Matching Alcoholism Treatments to Client Heterogeneity: Project MATCH posttreatment drinking outcomes J. Stud. Alcohol. 1997, 58:7-29), Combined Behavioral Intervention (CBI), (Anton et al., JAMA, 2006, 295:2003-2017) Medical Management (MM) (Anton et al., JAMA, 2006, 295:2003-2017), or the Biopsychosocial, Report, Empathy, Needs, Direct advice, and Assessment (BRENDA) model (Garbutt et al., JAMA, 2005, 293:1617-1625). The present invention further encompasses the use of alternative interventions such as hypnosis or acupuncture to assist in treating an addictive disease or disorder.

The psychosocial management programs can be used before, during, and after treating the subject with the combination drug therapy of the invention.

One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that psychosocial management procedures, as well as alternative interventions such as hypnosis or acupuncture, can also be used in conjunction with combination drug therapy to treat addictive and impulse-related disorders other than alcohol-related diseases and disorders.

The present invention further encompasses the use of combination pharmacotherapy and behavioral (psychosocial) intervention or training to treat other addictive and/or impulse control disorders.

For example, binge eating disorder (BED) is characterized by discrete periods of binge eating during which large amounts of food are consumed in a discrete period of time and a sense of control over eating is absent. Persons with bulimia nervosa have been reported to have electroencephalographic abnormalities and to display reduced binge eating in response to the anti-epileptic drug phenytoin. In addition, in controlled trials in patients with epilepsy, topiramate was associated with suppression of appetite and weight loss unrelated to binge eating. Ondansetron has been shown to reduce binge eating.

BED is a subset of a larger classification of mental disorders broadly defined as Impulse Control Disorders (ICDs) characterized by harmful behaviors performed in response to irresistible impulses. It has been suggested that ICDs may be related to obsessive-compulsive disorder or similarly, maybe forms of obsessive-compulsive disorders. It has also been hypothesized that ICDs may be related to mood disorder or may be forms of affective spectrum disorder, a hypothesized family of disorders sharing at least one common physiologic abnormality with major depression. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), the essential feature of an ICD is the failure to resist an impulse, drive, or temptation to perform an act that is harmful to the person or to others. For most ICDs, the individual feels an increasing sense of tension or arousal before committing the act, and then experiences pleasure, gratification, or release at the time of committing the act. After the act is performed, there may or may not be regret or guilt. ICDs are listed in a residual category, the ICDs Not Elsewhere Classified, which includes intermittent explosive disorder (IED), kleptomania, pathological gambling, pyromania, trichotillomania, and ICDs not otherwise specified (NOS). Examples of ICDs NOS are compulsive buying or shopping, repetitive self-mutilation, nonparaphilic sexual addictions, severe nail biting, compulsive skin picking, personality disorders with impulsive features, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, eating disorders characterized by binge eating, and substance use disorders.

Many drugs can cause physical and/or psychological addiction. Those most well known drugs include opiates, such as heroin, opium and morphine; sympathomimetics, including cocaine and amphetamines; sedative-hypnotics, including alcohol, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates; and nicotine, which has effects similar to opioids and sympathomimetics. Drug addiction is characterized by a craving or compulsion for taking the drug and an inability to limit its intake. Additionally, drug dependence is associated with drug tolerance, the loss of effect of the drug following repeated administration, and withdrawal, the appearance of physical and behavioral symptoms when the drug is not consumed. Sensitization occurs if repeated administration of a drug leads to an increased response to each dose. Tolerance, sensitization, and withdrawal are phenomena evidencing a change in the central nervous system resulting from continued use of the drug. This change motivates the addicted individual to continue consuming the drug despite serious social, legal, physical, and/or professional consequences.

Attention-deficit disorders include, but are not limited to, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Predominately Inattentive Type; Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Predominately Hyperactivity-Impulsive Type; Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Combined Type; Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS); Conduct Disorder; Oppositional Defiant Disorder; and Disruptive Behavior Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS).

Depressive disorders include, but are not limited to, Major Depressive Disorder, Recurrent; Dysthymic Disorder; Depressive Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS); and Major Depressive Disorder, Single Episode.

Parkinson's disease includes, but is not limited to, neuroleptic-induced parkinsonism.

Addictive disorders include, but are not limited to, eating disorders, impulse control disorders, alcohol-related disorders, nicotine-related disorders, amphetamine-related disorders, cannabis-related disorders, cocaine-related disorders, gambling, sexual disorders, hallucinogen use disorders, inhalant-related disorders, and opioid-related disorders, all of which are further subclassified as listed below.

Eating disorders include, but are not limited to, Bulimia Nervosa, Nonpurging Type; Bulimia Nervosa, Purging Type; and Eating Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS).

Impulse control disorders include, but are not limited to, Intermittent Explosive Disorder, Kleptomania, Pyromania, Pathological Gambling, Trichotillomania, and Impulse Control Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS).

Nicotine-related disorders include, but are not limited to, Nicotine Dependence, Nicotine Withdrawal, and Nicotine-Related Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS).

Amphetamine-related disorders include, but are not limited to, Amphetamine Dependence, Amphetamine Abuse, Amphetamine Intoxication, Amphetamine Withdrawal, Amphetamine Intoxication Delirium, Amphetamine-Induced Psychotic Disorder with delusions, Amphetamine-Induced Psychotic Disorders with hallucinations, Amphetamine-Induced Mood Disorder, Amphetamine-Induced Anxiety Disorder, Amphetamine-Induced Sexual Dysfunction, Amphetamine-Induced Sleep Disorder, Amphetamine Related Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS), Amphetamine Intoxication, and Amphetamine Withdrawal.

Cannabis-related disorders include, but are not limited to, Cannabis Dependence; Cannabis Abuse; Cannabis Intoxication; Cannabis Intoxication Delirium; Cannabis-Induced Psychotic Disorder, with delusions; Cannabis-Induced Psychotic Disorder with hallucinations; Cannabis-Induced Anxiety Disorder; Cannabis-Related Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS); and Cannabis Intoxication.

Cocaine-related disorders include, but are not limited to, Cocaine Dependence, Cocaine Abuse, Cocaine Intoxication, Cocaine Withdrawal, Cocaine Intoxication Delirium, Cocaine-Induced Psychotic Disorder with delusions, Cocaine-Induced Psychotic Disorders with hallucinations, Cocaine-Induced Mood Disorder, Cocaine-Induced Anxiety Disorder, Cocaine-Induced Sexual Dysfunction, Cocaine-Induced Sleep Disorder, Cocaine-Related Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS), Cocaine Intoxication, and Cocaine Withdrawal.

Hallucinogen-use disorders include, but are not limited to, Hallucinogen Dependence, Hallucinogen Abuse, Hallucinogen Intoxication, Hallucinogen Withdrawal, Hallucinogen Intoxication Delirium, Hallucinogen-Induced Psychotic Disorder with delusions, Hallucinogen-Induced Psychotic Disorder with hallucinations, Hallucinogen-Induced Mood Disorder, Hallucinogen-Induced Anxiety Disorder, Hallucinogen-Induced Sexual Dysfunction, Hallucinogen-Induced Sleep Disorder, Hallucinogen Related Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS), Hallucinogen Intoxication, and Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (Flashbacks).

Inhalant-related disorders include, but are not limited to, Inhalant Dependence; Inhalant Abuse; Inhalant Intoxication; Inhalant Intoxication Delirium; Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder, with delusions; Inhalant-Induced Psychotic Disorder with hallucinations; Inhalant-Induced Anxiety Disorder; Inhalant-Related Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS); and Inhalant Intoxication.

Opioid-related disorders include, but are not limited to, Opioid Dependence, Opioid Abuse, Opioid Intoxication, Opioid Intoxication Delirium, Opioid-Induced Psychotic Disorder, with delusions, Opioid-Induced Psychotic Disorder with hallucinations, Opioid-Induced Anxiety Disorder, Opioid-Related Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS), Opioid Intoxication, and Opioid Withdrawal.

Tic disorders include, but are not limited to, Tourette's Disorder, Chronic Motor or Vocal Tic Disorder, Transient Tic Disorder, Tic Disorder not otherwise specified (NOS), Stuttering, Autistic Disorder, and Somatization Disorder.

The present invention further encompasses the treatment of at least two addictive diseases or disorders or impulse control disorders simultaneously. For example, the present invention provides for the simultaneous treatment of alcohol related disorders and weight control (see Examples).

The present invention also encompasses the use of the compounds and combination therapies of the invention in circumstances where mandatory treatment may be applicable. For example, a court may require that a subject be treated or take part in a treatment program using compounds or combination therapies of the invention as part of a mandated therapy related to alcohol abuse, excessive drinking, drug use, etc. More particularly, the invention encompasses forensic uses where a court would require a subject who has been convicted of driving under the influence to be subjected to the methods of the invention as part of a condition of bail, probation, treatment, etc.

The invention also encompasses the use of pharmaceutical compositions comprising compounds of the invention to practice the methods of the invention, the compositions comprising at least one appropriate compound and a pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier.

The pharmaceutical compositions useful for practicing the invention may be, for example, administered to deliver a dose of between 1 ng/kg/day and 100 mg/kg/day.

Pharmaceutical compositions that are useful in the methods of the invention may be administered, for example, systemically in oral solid formulations, or as ophthalmic, suppository, aerosol, topical or other similar formulations. In addition to the appropriate compounds, such pharmaceutical compositions may contain pharmaceutically-acceptable carriers and other ingredients known to enhance and facilitate drug administration. Other possible formulations, such as nanoparticles, liposomes, resealed erythrocytes, and immunologically based systems may also be used to administer an appropriate compound, or an analog, modification, or derivative thereof according to the methods of the invention.

Compounds which are identified using any of the methods described herein may be formulated and administered to a subject for treatment of the diseases disclosed herein. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that these methods will be useful for other diseases, disorders, and conditions as well.

The invention encompasses the preparation and use of pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound useful for treatment of the diseases disclosed herein as an active ingredient. Such a pharmaceutical composition may consist of the active ingredient alone, in a form suitable for administration to a subject, or the pharmaceutical composition may comprise the active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, one or more additional ingredients, or some combination of these. The active ingredient may be present in the pharmaceutical composition in the form of a physiologically acceptable ester or salt, such as in combination with a physiologically acceptable cation or anion, as is well known in the art.

The formulations of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein may be prepared by any method known or hereafter developed in the art of pharmacology. In general, such preparatory methods include the step of bringing the active ingredient into association with a carrier or one or more other accessory ingredients, and then, if desirable, shaping or packaging the product into a desired single- or multi-dose unit.

Although the descriptions of pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are principally directed to pharmaceutical compositions which are suitable for ethical administration to humans, it will be understood by the skilled artisan that such compositions are generally suitable for administration to animals of all sorts. Modification of pharmaceutical compositions suitable for administration to humans in order to render the compositions suitable for administration to various animals is well understood, and the ordinarily skilled veterinary pharmacologist can design and perform such modification with merely ordinary, if any, experimentation. Subjects to which administration of the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention is contemplated include, but are not limited to, humans and other primates, mammals including commercially relevant mammals such as cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, cats, and dogs, and birds including commercially relevant birds such as chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys.

One type of administration encompassed by the methods of the invention is parenteral administration, which includes, but is not limited to, administration of a pharmaceutical composition by injection of the composition, by application of the composition through a surgical incision, by application of the composition through a tissue-penetrating non-surgical wound, and the like. In particular, parenteral administration is contemplated to include, but is not limited to, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal intramuscular, and intrasternal injection, and kidney dialytic infusion techniques

Pharmaceutical compositions that are useful in the methods of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in formulations suitable for oral, rectal, vaginal, parenteral, topical, pulmonary, intranasal, inhalation, buccal, ophthalmic, intrathecal or another route of administration. Other contemplated formulations include projected nanoparticles, liposomal preparations, resealed erythrocytes containing the active ingredient, and immunologically-based formulations.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in bulk, as a single unit dose, or as a plurality of single unit doses. As used herein, a “unit dose” is a discrete amount of the pharmaceutical composition comprising a predetermined amount of the active ingredient. The amount of the active ingredient is generally equal to the dosage of the active ingredient which would be administered to a subject, or a convenient fraction of such a dosage such as, for example, one-half or one-third of such a dosage.

The relative amounts of the active ingredient, the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and any additional ingredients in a pharmaceutical composition of the invention will vary, depending upon the identity, size, and condition of the subject treated and further depending upon the route by which the composition is to be administered. By way of example, the composition may comprise between 0.1% and 100% (w/w) active ingredient.

In addition to the active ingredient, a pharmaceutical composition of the invention may further comprise one or more additional pharmaceutically active agents. Particularly contemplated additional agents include anti-emetics and scavengers such as cyanide and cyanate scavengers

Controlled- or sustained-release formulations of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be made using conventional technology.

A formulation of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention suitable for oral administration may be prepared, packaged, or sold in the form of a discrete solid dose unit including, but not limited to, a tablet, a hard or soft capsule, a cachet, a troche, or a lozenge, each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient. Other formulations suitable for oral administration include, but are not limited to, a powdered or granular formulation, an aqueous or oily suspension, an aqueous or oily solution, or an emulsion.

As used herein, an “oily” liquid is one which comprises a carbon-containing liquid molecule and which exhibits a less polar character than water.

A tablet comprising the active ingredient may, for example, be made by compressing or molding the active ingredient, optionally with one or more additional ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared by compressing, in a suitable device, the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as a powder or granular preparation, optionally mixed with one or more of a binder, a lubricant, an excipient, a surface active agent, and a dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made by molding, in a suitable device, a mixture of the active ingredient, a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and at least sufficient liquid to moisten the mixture. Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients used in the manufacture of tablets include, but are not limited to, inert diluents, granulating and disintegrating agents, binding agents, and lubricating agents. Known dispersing agents include, but are not limited to, potato starch and sodium starch glycollate. Known surface active agents include, but are not limited to, sodium lauryl sulphate. Known diluents include, but are not limited to, calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, calcium phosphate, calcium hydrogen phosphate, and sodium phosphate. Known granulating and disintegrating agents include, but are not limited to, corn starch and alginic acid. Known binding agents include, but are not limited to, gelatin, acacia, pre-gelatinized maize starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone, and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. Known lubricating agents include, but are not limited to, magnesium stearate, stearic acid, silica, and talc.

Tablets may be non-coated or may be coated using known methods to achieve delayed disintegration in the gastrointestinal tract of a subject, thereby providing sustained release and absorption of the active ingredient. By way of example, a material such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate may be used to coat tablets. Further by way of example, tablets may be coated using methods described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,256,108; 4,160,452; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,265,874 to form osmotically-controlled release tablets. Tablets may further comprise a sweetening agent, a flavoring agent, a coloring agent, a preservative, or some combination of these in order to provide pharmaceutically elegant and palatable preparation.

Hard capsules comprising the active ingredient may be made using a physiologically degradable composition, such as gelatin. Such hard capsules comprise the active ingredient, and may further comprise additional ingredients including, for example, an inert solid diluent such as calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, or kaolin.

Soft gelatin capsules comprising the active ingredient may be made using a physiologically degradable composition, such as gelatin. Such soft capsules comprise the active ingredient, which may be mixed with water or an oil medium such as peanut oil, liquid paraffin, or olive oil.

Lactulose can also be used as a freely erodible filler and is useful when the compounds of the invention are prepared in capsule form.

Liquid formulations of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention which are suitable for oral administration may be prepared, packaged, and sold either in liquid form or in the form of a dry product intended for reconstitution with water or another suitable vehicle prior to use.

Liquid suspensions may be prepared using conventional methods to achieve suspension of the active ingredient in an aqueous or oily vehicle. Aqueous vehicles include, for example, water and isotonic saline. Oily vehicles include, for example, almond oil, oily esters, ethyl alcohol, vegetable oils such as arachis, olive, sesame, or coconut oil, fractionated vegetable oils, and mineral oils such as liquid paraffin. Liquid suspensions may further comprise one or more additional ingredients including, but not limited to, suspending agents, dispersing or wetting agents, emulsifying agents, demulcents, preservatives, buffers, salts, flavorings, coloring agents, and sweetening agents. Oily suspensions may further comprise a thickening agent. Known suspending agents include, but are not limited to, sorbitol syrup, hydrogenated edible fats, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, gum tragacanth, gum acacia, and cellulose derivatives such as sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. Known dispersing or wetting agents include, but are not limited to, naturally occurring phosphatides such as lecithin, condensation products of an alkylene oxide with a fatty acid, with a long chain aliphatic alcohol, with a partial ester derived from a fatty acid and a hexitol, or with a partial ester derived from a fatty acid and a hexitol anhydride (e.g., polyoxyethylene stearate, heptadecaethyleneoxycetanol, polyoxyethylene sorbitol monooleate, and polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, respectively). Known emulsifying agents include, but are not limited to, lecithin and acacia. Known preservatives include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, or n-propyl para hydroxybenzoates, ascorbic acid, and sorbic acid. Known sweetening agents include, for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, sorbitol, sucrose, and saccharin. Known thickening agents for oily suspensions include, for example, beeswax, hard paraffin, and cetyl alcohol.

In one aspect, a preparation in the form of a syrup or elixir or for administration in the form of drops may comprise active ingredients together with a sweetener, which can be calorie-free, and which may further include methylparaben or propylparaben as antiseptics, a flavoring and a suitable color.

Liquid solutions of the active ingredient in aqueous or oily solvents may be prepared in substantially the same manner as liquid suspensions, the primary difference being that the active ingredient is dissolved, rather than suspended in the solvent. Liquid solutions of the pharmaceutical composition of the invention may comprise each of the components described with regard to liquid suspensions, it being understood that suspending agents will not necessarily aid dissolution of the active ingredient in the solvent. Aqueous solvents include, for example, water and isotonic saline. Oily solvents include, for example, almond oil, oily esters, ethyl alcohol, vegetable oils such as arachis, olive, sesame, or coconut oil, fractionated vegetable oils, and mineral oils such as liquid paraffin.

Powdered and granular formulations of a pharmaceutical preparation of the invention may be prepared using known methods. Such formulations may be administered directly to a subject, used, for example, to form tablets, to fill capsules, or to prepare an aqueous or oily suspension or solution by addition of an aqueous or oily vehicle thereto. Each of these formulations may further comprise one or more of a dispersing or wetting agent, a suspending agent, and a preservative. Additional excipients, such as fillers and sweetening, flavoring, or coloring agents, may also be included in these formulations.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may also be prepared, packaged, or sold in the form of oil in water emulsion or a water-in-oil emulsion. The oily phase may be a vegetable oil such as olive or arachis oil, a mineral oil such as liquid paraffin, or a combination of these. Such compositions may further comprise one or more emulsifying agents including naturally occurring gums such as gum acacia or gum tragacanth, naturally occurring phosphatides such as soybean or lecithin phosphatide, esters or partial esters derived from combinations of fatty acids and hexitol anhydrides such as sorbitan monooleate, and condensation products of such partial esters with ethylene oxide such as polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate. These emulsions may also contain additional ingredients including, for example, sweetening or flavoring agents.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for rectal administration. Such a composition may be in the form of, for example, a suppository, a retention enema preparation, and a solution for rectal or colonic irrigation.

Suppository formulations may be made by combining the active ingredient with a non irritating pharmaceutically acceptable excipient which is solid at ordinary room temperature (i.e. about 20° C.) and which is liquid at the rectal temperature of the subject (i.e. about 37° C. in a healthy human). Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable excipients include, but are not limited to, cocoa butter, polyethylene glycols, and various glycerides. Suppository formulations may further comprise various additional ingredients including, but not limited to, antioxidants and preservatives.

Retention enema preparations or solutions for rectal or colonic irrigation may be made by combining the active ingredient with a pharmaceutically acceptable liquid carrier. As is well known in the art, enema preparations may be administered using, and may be packaged within, a delivery device adapted to the rectal anatomy of the subject. Enema preparations may further comprise various additional ingredients including, but not limited to, antioxidants and preservatives.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for vaginal administration. Such a composition may be in the form of, for example, a suppository, an impregnated or coated vaginally-insertable material such as a tampon, a douche preparation, or gel or cream or a solution for vaginal irrigation.

Methods for impregnating or coating a material with a chemical composition are known in the art, and include, but are not limited to methods of depositing or binding a chemical composition onto a surface, methods of incorporating a chemical composition into the structure of a material during the synthesis of the material (i.e. such as with a physiologically degradable material), and methods of absorbing an aqueous or oily solution or suspension into an absorbent material, with or without subsequent drying.

Douche preparations or solutions for vaginal irrigation may be made by combining the active ingredient with a pharmaceutically acceptable liquid carrier. As is well known in the art, douche preparations may be administered using, and max be packaged within, a delivery device adapted to the vaginal anatomy of the subject. Douche preparations may further comprise various additional ingredients including, but not limited to, antioxidants, antibiotics, antifungal agents, and preservatives.

As used herein, “parenteral administration” of a pharmaceutical composition includes any route of administration characterized by physical breaching of a tissue of a subject and administration of the pharmaceutical composition through the breach in the tissue. Parenteral administration thus includes, but is not limited to, administration of a pharmaceutical composition by injection of the composition, by application of the composition through a surgical incision, by application of the composition through a tissue-penetrating non-surgical wound, and the like. In particular, parenteral administration is contemplated to include, but is not limited to, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, and intrasternal injection, and kidney dialytic infusion techniques.

Formulations of a pharmaceutical composition suitable for parenteral administration comprise the active ingredient combined with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, such as sterile water or sterile isotonic saline. Such formulations may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a form suitable for bolus administration or for continuous administration. Injectable formulations may be prepared, packaged, or sold in unit dosage form, such as in ampules or in multi-dose containers containing a preservative. Formulations for parenteral administration include, but are not limited to, suspensions, solutions, emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, pastes, and implantable sustained-release or biodegradable formulations. Such formulations may further comprise one or more additional ingredients including, but not limited to, suspending, stabilizing, or dispersing agents. In one embodiment of a formulation for parenteral administration, the active ingredient is provided in dry (i.e., powder or granular) form for reconstitution with a suitable vehicle (e.g., sterile pyrogen free water) prior to parenteral administration of the reconstituted composition.

The pharmaceutical compositions may be prepared, packaged, or sold in the form of a sterile injectable aqueous or oily suspension or solution. This suspension or solution max be formulated according to the known art, and may comprise, in addition to the active ingredient, additional ingredients such as the dispersing agents, wetting agents, or suspending agents described herein. Such sterile injectable formulations may be prepared using a non-toxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, such as water or 1,3-butane diol, for example. Other acceptable diluents and solvents include, but are not limited to, Ringer's solution, isotonic sodium chloride solution, and fixed oils such as synthetic mono- or di-glycerides. Other parentally-administrable formulations which are useful include those which comprise the active ingredient in microcrystalline form, in a liposomal preparation, or as a component of a biodegradable polymer systems. Compositions for sustained release or implantation may comprise pharmaceutically acceptable polymeric or hydrophobic materials such as an emulsion, an ion exchange resin, a sparingly soluble polymer, or a sparingly soluble salt.

Formulations suitable for topical administration include, but are not limited to, liquid or semi-liquid preparations such as liniments, lotions, oil in water or water in oil emulsions such as creams, ointments or pastes, and solutions or suspensions. Topically-administrable formulations may, for example, comprise from about 1% to about 10% (w/w) active ingredient, although the concentration of the active ingredient may be as high as the solubility limit of the active ingredient in the solvent. Formulations for topical administration may further comprise one or more of the additional ingredients described herein.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for pulmonary administration via the buccal cavity. Such a formulation may comprise dry particles which comprise the active ingredient and which have a diameter in the range from about 0.5 to about 7 nanometers, and from about 1 to about 6 nanometers. Such compositions are conveniently in the form of dry powders for administration using a device comprising a dry powder reservoir to which a stream of propellant may be directed to disperse the powder or using a self-propelling solvent/powder-dispensing container such as a device comprising the active ingredient dissolved or suspended in a low-boiling propellant in a sealed container. Such powders can comprise particles wherein at least 98% of the particles by weight have a diameter greater than 0.5 nanometers and at least 95% of the particles by number have a diameter less than 7 nanometers. In one embodiment, at least 95% of the particles by weight have a diameter greater than 1 nanometer and at least 90% of the particles by number have a diameter less than 6 nanometers. Dry powder compositions can include a solid fine powder diluent such as sugar and are conveniently provided in a unit dose form.

Low boiling propellants generally include liquid propellants having a boiling point of below 65° F. at atmospheric pressure. Generally, the propellant may constitute about 50% to about 99.9% (w/w) of the composition, and the active ingredient may constitute about 0.1% to about 20% (w/w) of the composition. The propellant may further comprise additional ingredients such as a liquid non-ionic or solid anionic surfactant or a solid diluent (including those having a particle size of the same order as particles comprising the active ingredient).

Pharmaceutical compositions of the invention formulated for pulmonary delivery may also provide the active ingredient in the form of droplets of a solution or suspension. Such formulations may be prepared, packaged, or sold as aqueous or dilute alcoholic solutions or suspensions, optionally sterile, comprising the active ingredient, and may conveniently be administered using any nebulization or atomization device. Such formulations may further comprise one or more additional ingredients including, but not limited to, a flavoring agent such as saccharin sodium, a volatile oil, a buffering agent, a surface active agent, or a preservative such as methylhydroxybenzoate. The droplets provided by this route of administration may have an average diameter in the range from about 0.1 to about 200 nanometers.

The formulations described herein as being useful for pulmonary delivery are also useful for intranasal delivery of a pharmaceutical composition of the invention.

Another formulation suitable for intranasal administration is a coarse powder comprising the active ingredient and having an average particle from about 0.2 to about 500 micrometers. Such a formulation is administered in the manner in which snuff is taken, i.e., by rapid inhalation through the nasal passage from a container of the powder held close to the nares.

Formulations suitable for nasal administration may, for example, comprise from about as little as about 0.1% (w/w) and as much as about 100% (w/w) of the active ingredient, and may further comprise one or more of the additional ingredients described herein.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for buccal administration. Such formulations may, for example, be in the form of tablets or lozenges made using conventional methods, and may, for example, comprise about 0.1% to about 20% (w/w) active ingredient, the balance comprising an orally dissolvable or degradable composition and, optionally, one or more of the additional ingredients described herein. Alternately, formulations suitable for buccal administration may comprise a powder or an aerosolized or atomized solution or suspension comprising the active ingredient. Such powdered, aerosolized, or atomized formulations, when dispersed, can have an average particle or droplet size in the range from about 0.1 to about 200 nanometers, and may further comprise one or more of the additional ingredients described herein.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for ophthalmic administration. Such formulations may, for example, be in the form of eye drops including, for example, a 0.1% to 1.0% (w/w) solution or suspension of the active ingredient in an aqueous or oily liquid carrier. Such drops may further comprise buffering agents, salts, or one or more other of the additional ingredients described herein. Other opthalmically-administrable formulations which are useful include those which comprise the active ingredient in microcrystalline form or in a liposomal preparation.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged, or sold in a formulation suitable for intramucosal administration. The present invention provides for intramucosal administration of compounds to allow passage or absorption of the compounds across mucosa. Such type of administration is useful for absorption orally (gingival, sublingual, buccal, etc.), rectally, vaginally, pulmonary, nasally, etc.

In some aspects, sublingual administration has an advantage for active ingredients which in some cases, when given orally, are subject to a substantial first pass metabolism and enzymatic degradation through the liver, resulting in rapid metabolization and a loss of therapeutic activity related to the activity of the liver enzymes that convert the molecule into inactive metabolites, or the activity of which is decreased because of this bioconversion.

In some cases, a sublingual route of administration is capable of producing a rapid onset of action due to the considerable permeability and vascularization of the buccal mucosa. Moreover, sublingual administration can also allow the administration of active ingredients which are not normally absorbed at the level of the stomach mucosa or digestive mucosa after oral administration, or alternatively which are partially or completely degraded in acidic medium after ingestion of, for example, a tablet.

Sublingual tablet preparation techniques known from the prior art are usually prepared by direct compression of a mixture of powders comprising the active ingredient and excipients for compression, such as diluents, binders, disintegrating agents and adjuvants. In an alternative method of preparation, the active ingredient and the compression excipients can be dry- or wet-granulated beforehand. In one aspect, the active ingredient is distributed throughout the mass of the tablet. WO 00/16750 describes a tablet for sublingual use that disintegrates rapidly and comprises an ordered mixture in which the active ingredient is in the form of microparticles which adhere to the surface of water-soluble particles that are substantially greater in size, constituting a support for the active microparticles, the composition also comprising a mucoadhesive agent. WO 00/57858 describes a tablet for sublingual use, comprising an active ingredient combined with an effervescent system intended to promote absorption, and also a pH-modifier.

The compounds of the invention can be prepared in a formulation or pharmaceutical composition appropriate for administration that allows or enhances absorption across mucosa. Mucosal absorption enhancers include, but are not limited to, a bile salt, fatty acid, surfactant, or alcohol. In specific embodiments, the permeation enhancer can be sodium cholate, sodium dodecyl sulphate, sodium deoxycholate, taurodeoxycholate, sodium glycocholate, dimethylsulfoxide or ethanol. In a further embodiment, a compound of the invention can be formulated with a mucosal penetration enhancer to facilitate delivery of the compound. The formulation can also be prepared with pH optimized for solubility, drug stability, and absorption through mucosa such as nasal mucosa, oral mucosa, vaginal mucosa, respiratory, and intestinal mucosa.

To further enhance mucosal delivery of pharmaceutical agents within the invention, formulations comprising the active agent may also contain a hydrophilic low molecular weight compound as a base or excipient. Such hydrophilic low molecular weight compounds provide a passage medium through which a water-soluble active agent, such as a physiologically active peptide or protein, may diffuse through the base to the body surface where the active agent is absorbed. The hydrophilic low molecular weight compound optionally absorbs moisture from the mucosa or the administration atmosphere and dissolves the water-soluble active peptide. The molecular weight of the hydrophilic low molecular weight compound is generally not more than 10000 and in one embodiment not more than 3000. Exemplary hydrophilic low molecular weight compounds include polyol compounds, such as oligo-, di- and monosaccharides such as sucrose, mannitol, lactose, L-arabinose, D-erythrose, D-ribose, Dose, D-xylose, D-mannose, D-galactose, lactulose, cellobiose, gentibiose, glycerin, and polyethylene glycol. Other examples of hydrophilic low molecular weight compounds useful as carriers within the invention include N-methylpyrrolidone, and alcohols (e.g., oligovinyl alcohol, ethanol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, etc.). These hydrophilic low molecular weight compounds can be used alone or in combination with one another or with other active or inactive components of the intranasal formulation.

When a controlled-release pharmaceutical preparation of the present invention further contains a hydrophilic base, many options are available for inclusion. Hydrophilic polymers such as a polyethylene glycol and polyvinyl pyrrolidone, sugar alcohols such as D-sorbitol and xylitol, saccharides such as sucrose, maltose, lactulose, D-fructose, dextran, and glucose, surfactants such as polyoxy ethylene-hydrogenated castor oil, polyoxyethylene polyoxypropylene glycol, and poly oxyethylene sorbitan higher fatty acid esters, salts such as sodium chloride and magnesium chloride, organic acids such as citric acid and tartaric acid, amino acids such as glycine, beta-alanine, and lysine hydrochloride, and aminosaccharides such as meglumine are given as examples of the hydrophilic base. In one embodiment, polyethylene glycol, sucrose, polyvinyl pyrrolidone and polyethylene glycol can be used. One or a combination of two or more hydrophilic bases can be used in the present invention.

The present invention contemplates pulmonary, nasal, or oral administration through an inhaler. In one embodiment, delivery from an inhaler can be a metered dose.

An inhaler is a device for patient self-administration of at least one compound of the invention comprising a spray inhaler (e.g., a nasal, oral, or pulmonary spray inhaler) containing an aerosol spray formulation of at least one compound of the invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable dispersant. In one aspect, the device is metered to disperse an amount of the aerosol formulation by forming a spray that contains a dose of at least one compound of the invention effective to treat a disease or disorder encompassed by the invention. The dispersant may be a surfactant, such as, but not limited to, polyoxyethylene fatty acid esters, polyoxyethylene fatty acid alcohols, and polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acid esters. Phospholipid-based surfactants also may be used.

In other embodiments, the aerosol formulation is provided as a dry powder aerosol formulation in which a compound of the invention is present as a finely divided powder. The dry powder formulation can further comprise a bulking agent, such as, but not limited to, lactose, sorbitol, sucrose, and mannitol.

In another specific embodiment, the aerosol formulation is a liquid aerosol formulation further comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, such as, but not limited to, sterile water, saline, buffered saline and dextrose solution.

In further embodiments, the aerosol formulation further comprises at least one additional compound of the invention in a concentration such that the metered amount of the aerosol formulation dispersed by the device contains a dose of the additional compound in a metered amount that is effective to ameliorate the symptoms of disease or disorder disclosed herein when used in combination with at least a first or second compound of the invention.

Thus, the invention provides a self administration method for outpatient treatment of an addiction related disease or disorder such as an alcohol-related disease or disorder. Such administration may be used in a hospital, in a medical office, or outside a hospital or medical office by non-medical personnel for self administration.

Compounds of the invention will be prepared in a formulation or pharmaceutical composition appropriate for nasal administration. In a further embodiment, the compounds of the invention can be formulated with a mucosal penetration enhancer to facilitate delivery of the drug. The formulation can also be prepared with pH optimized for solubility, drug stability, absorption through nasal mucosa, and other considerations.

Capsules, blisters, and cartridges for use in an inhaler or insufflator may be formulated to contain a powder mix of the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein; a suitable powder base, such as lactose or starch; and a performance modifier, such as 1-leucine, mannitol, or magnesium stearate. The lactose may be anhydrous or in the form of the monohydrate. Other suitable excipients include dextran, glucose, maltose, sorbitol, xylitol, fructose, sucrose, and trehalose. The pharmaceutical compositions provided herein for inhaled/intranasal administration may further comprise a suitable flavor, such as menthol and levomenthol, or sweeteners, such as saccharin or saccharin sodium.

For administration by inhalation, the compounds for use according to the methods of the invention are conveniently delivered in the form of an aerosol spray presentation from pressurized packs or a nebulizer, with the use of a suitable propellant, e.g., dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorotetrafluoroethane, carbon dioxide or other suitable gas. In the case of a pressurized aerosol, the dosage unit may be determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount, Capsules and cartridges of e.g., gelatin for use in an inhaler or insufflator may be formulated containing a powder mix of the drugs and a suitable powder base such as lactose or starch.

As used herein, “additional ingredients” include, but are not limited to, one or more of the following: excipients; surface active agents; dispersing agents; inert diluents; granulating and disintegrating agents; binding agents; lubricating agents; sweetening agents; flavoring agents; coloring agents; preservatives; physiologically degradable compositions such as gelatin; aqueous vehicles and solvents; oily vehicles and solvents; suspending agents; dispersing or wetting agents; emulsifying agents, demulcents; buffers; salts; thickening agents; fillers; emulsifying agents; antioxidants; antibiotics; antifungal agents; stabilizing agents; and pharmaceutically acceptable polymeric or hydrophobic materials. Other “additional ingredients” which may be included in the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention are known in the art and described, for example in Genaro, ed., 1985, Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., which is incorporated herein by reference.

Typically, dosages of the compounds of the invention which may be administered to an animal, including a human, range in amount from about 1.0 μg to about 100 g per kilogram of body weight of the animal. The precise dosage administered will vary depending upon any number of factors, including but not limited to, the type of animal and type of disease state being treated, the age of the animal and the route of administration. In one embodiment, the dosage of the compound will vary from about 1 mg to about 10 g per kilogram of body weight of the animal. In another embodiment, the dosage will vary from about 10 mg to about 1 g per kilogram of body weight of the animal.

The compounds may be administered to a subject as frequently as several times daily, or it may be administered less frequently, such as once a day, once a week, once every two weeks, once a month, or even less frequently, such as once every several months or even once a year or less. The frequency of the dose will be readily apparent to the skilled artisan and will depend upon any number of factors, such as, but not limited to, the type and severity of the disease being treated, the type and age of the animal, etc.

The invention also includes a kit comprising the compounds of the invention and an instructional material that describes administration of the compounds. In another embodiment, this kit comprises a (e.g., sterile) solvent suitable for dissolving or suspending the composition of the invention prior to administering the compound to the mammal.

As used herein, an “instructional material” includes a publication, a recording, a diagram, or any other medium of expression that can be used to communicate the usefulness of the compounds of the invention in the kit for effecting alleviation of the various diseases or disorders recited herein. Optionally, or alternately, the instructional material may describe one or more methods of alleviating the diseases or disorders. The instructional material of the kit of the invention may, for example, be affixed to a container that contains a compound of the invention or be shipped together with a container that contains the compounds. Alternatively, the instructional material may be shipped separately from the container with the intention that the instructional material and the compound be used cooperatively by the recipient.

Other methods and techniques useful for the practice of the invention that are not described are known in the art, for example, see International application no. PCT/US2008/064232.

Without further description, it is believed that one of ordinary skill in the art can, using the preceding description and the following illustrative examples, make and utilize the compounds of the present invention and practice the claimed methods. The following working examples, therefore, point out embodiments of the present invention, and are not to be construed as limiting in any way the remainder of the disclosure.

EXAMPLES Example 1—Analysis of Gene Patterns Related to Response to Ondansetron Treatment

Genotype data was collected from 281 patients participating in a clinical trial wherein ondansetron was administered. Epistatic analysis among SNPs from serotonin (SERT), 5HT-3A, and 5HT-3B reveal that significant epistatic effect exists among the three genes in affecting response to ondesetron treatment as measured by drinks/drinking day (DDD), drinks/day (DD), percentage heavy drinking days (PHDD), and percentage of days abstinent (PDA).

Combination of Either 5-HTT (LL+TT) or rs1150226 (AG) or rs1176713 (GG)

Outcomes/Genotype combination LL/TT or AG or GG (90/283 = 32%) Comparison OND [40/133] vs. Placebo [50/139] Drinks per Drinking Days (DDD) −1.77 [−2.94, −0.59] (0.003) Percentage of Heavy Drinking 11.60% [−22.49, −0.71] (0.037) Days (PHDD) Percentage Days of Abstinent 11.96% [1.11, 22.81] (0.031) (PDA) Percentage of Subjects with No Odds Ratio Heavy Drinking Days (PSNHDD) Comparison OND [8/23] vs. Placebo [3/27] Last 1 month: 0-1 HDD 2.24 [0.81, 6.19] (0.122)** DDD: (F = 8.9, p = 0.003); PHDD: (F = 4.6, p = 0.032); PDA: (F = 3.78, p = 0.052); **p-value for interaction between treatment and the genotype combination was greater than 0.10 Combination of Either rs1150226 (AG) or rs17614942 (AC) or rs1176719 (AA)

Outcomes/Genotype combination AG or AC or AA (70/283 = 25%) Comparison OND [34/134] vs. Placebo [36/138] Drinks per Drinking Days (DDD) −2.35 [−3.69, −1.01] (0.0006) Percentage of Heavy Drinking −18.14% [−30.30, −5.97] (0.004) Days (PHDD) Percentage Days of Abstinent 12.16% [−0.07, 24.39] (0.051)** (PDA) Percentage of Subjects with No Odds Ratio Heavy Drinking Days (PSNHDD) Comparison OND [9/36] vs. Placebo [3/30] Last month: 0-1 HDD 5.26 [1.24, 22.39] (0.025) DDD: (F = 12.2, p = 0.0005); PHDD: (F = 8.7, p = 0.003); PDA: (F = 2.63, p = 0.105); Results from Combined Genotypes

Drinks per drinking Estimated Lower Upper P- days (DDD) Mean 95% Cl 95% Cl value rs1150226 (AG) in 5-HT3A: −1.81 −3.51 −0.12 0.036 OND (n = 20) vs. Placebo (n = 24) rs17614942 (AC) in 5-HT3B: −2.73 −4.59 −0.87 0.004 OND (n = 17) vs. Placebo (n = 19) AG + AC: −2.42 −4.47 −0.36 0.021 OND (n = 14) vs. Placebo (n = 16) rs1176719 (AA) in 5-HT3A: −3.27 −5.75 −0.80 0.010 OND (n = 11) vs. Placebo (n = 11) rs1176713 (GG) in 5-HT3A: −3.92 −7.00 −0.84 0.013 OND (n = 6) vs. Placebo (n = 9) AA + GG: −3.91 −6.99 −0.83 0.013 OND (n = 6) vs. Placebo (n = 9) Results from Two or Three Genotypes

Estimated Lower Lpper Drinks per drinking days (DDD) Mean 95% Cl 95% Cl P-value LL/TT + AG: −3.92 −8.09 −0.26 0.066 OND (n = 5) vs. Placebo (n = 3) LL/TT + AC: −4.25 −7.87 −0.63 0.021 OND (n = 6) vs. Placebo (n = 4) LL/TT + AG + AC: −4.05 −8.41 0.31 0.068 OND (n = 4) vs. Placebo (n = 3) LL/TT + AA: −8.50 −13.05 −3.96 0.0002 OND (n = 4) vs. Placebo (n = 3) LL/TT + GG: −7.65 −12.65 −2.64 0.003 OND (n = 3) vs. Placebo (n = 3) LL/TT + AA + GG: −7.66 −12.67 −2.65 0.003 OND (n = 3) vs. Placebo (n = 3)

Combination of LL/TT or AG or AC or AA or GG

Outcomes/Genotype combination LL/TT or AG or AC or AA or GG (97/283 = 34.3%) Comparison OND [3.4/134] vs. Placebo [36/138] Drinks per Drinking Days (DDD) −1.66 [−2.79, −0.52] (0.004) Percentage of Heavy Drinking Days −11.25% [−21.66, −0.84] (PHDD) (0.034) Percentage Days of Abstinent (PDA) 8.08% [−2.40, 18.56] (0.131)** Percentage of Subjects with No Odds Ratio Heavy Drinking Days (PSNHDD) Comparison OND [13/34] vs. Placebo [10/30] Last 1 month: 0-1 HDD 2.32 [0.86, 6.25] (0.095)**

Example 2—CART Analysis of Gene Patterns Related to Response to Ondansetron Treatment

A decision tree is a structure that can be used to divide up a large collection of records into successively smaller sets of records by applying a sequence of simple decision rules. One advantage of decision tree is that the results can be easily interpreted. CART is a popular decision tree algorithm first published in Breiman et al 1984. CART starts by dividing data into 2 sub-groups (child nodes) that are homogeneous with respect to a particular target variable, in our case the target variable is the binary class label Z. By doing exhaustive search over all possible cutoffs for all possible candidate covariates, sub-groups are formed by identifying optimal split point for the optimal candidate covariate. Repeat the process recursively at each child node until one of the stopping criteria is met. In the end, CART prunes tree to smaller optimal size using cross-validation. After the final tree is determined, the class label (treatment) for “new subjects” is given by running them down the tree and identifying which terminal node they belong. The class label of the terminal node is formed by majority vote of cases in this node, that is if the proportion of class 1 in this node p>0.5, then the class label is 1, otherwise is 0.

Let t denote the node, which is a region of the covariates space. A Split denoted by s on a numeric variable Xj take the form Xj<xji, where xji is a cut-off selected by trying all values of Xj in the data set as candidate split points. s splits the node t into left and right daughter nodes tL=I{Xj<xji}t and tR=I{Xj≥xji}t. The impurity function is used as a measure of node homogeneity. To calculate the impact of a split, compute increase in purity (or reduction in impurity) and choose a split that gives maximal value over all possible splits as the best splitter for node t. Gini criterion is the usual splitting criteria chosen by CART for categorical target.

Decision tree keeps growing as long as a new split can be found that improves the ability to separate the records of the training set into more pure subsets. The full tree would not do the best job when applied to new dataset.

The CART identifies candidate sub-trees through a process of repeated pruning. CART relies on a concept called adjusted error rate, AERα(T)===error rate(T)+α node count(T). This is a measure that increases each tree(T)'s misclassification rate on the training set by imposing a complexity penalty based on the number of final nodes in the tree. One can form a sequence of sub-trees of the full tree by varying the penalty value (cost complexity parameter), u, and determining the tree that minimizes the adjusted error rate.

Data Analysis Result:

After deleting the subjects with missing data, 251 subjects were included in the data analysis. Y=phd base90-mean(phdweek); X=(phd base90,Onage,age,male,sert,rs1042173, . . . , rs1672717). There are total 21 genotypes. T=1 (ondansetron) and T=0 (placebo). The goal is to find a subgroup defined by X where the treatment effect is significant. After transforming this problem to a classification problem, CART was used to find the best subgroup with decision tree form.

The result is:

gen1=I(rs150226=AA or AG): There are 42 subjects (17% of 251) in this subgroup. The sample mean difference of gen1=E(Y|T=1)−E(Y|T=0)=50.9%−22.2%=28.7%.

gen2=I(rs1150226=GG)I(rs176719=AA or AG)I(phd base90≥0.8663): There are 49 subjects (20% of 251) in this subgroup. The sample mean difference of gen2=E(Y|T=1)−E(Y|T=0)=37.6%−226%=15.0%.

gen=I(rs1150226=AA or AG)+I(rs1150226=GG)I(rs1176719=AA or GG)I(phd base90≥0.8663): There are 91 subjects (37% of 251) in this subgroup. The sample mean difference of gen=E(Y|T=1)−E(Y|T=0)=43.0%−22.4%=20.6%.

The overall sample mean difference=E(Y|T=1)−E(Y|T=0)=32.1%−31.9%=0.2%

The disclosures of each and every patent, patent application, and publication cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

Headings are included herein for reference and to aid in locating certain sections. These headings are not intended to limit the scope of the concepts described therein under, and these concepts may have applicability in other sections throughout the entire specification.

While this invention has been disclosed with reference to specific embodiments, it is apparent that other embodiments and variations of this invention may be devised by others skilled in the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of treating an addictive disease or disorder, comprising: administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of an antagonist of the serotonin receptor 5-HT₃, wherein the patient's serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 is known to have a genotype selected from sets (a)-(q): (a.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of rs1150226; (b.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AC genotype of rs17614942; (c.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (d.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (e.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (f.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (g.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the GG genotype of rs1176713; (h.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (i.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (j.) the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (k.) the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (l.) the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (m.) the GG genotype of rs1176713 and the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the LL genotype of 5-HTTLPR, and the TT genotype of rs1042173; (n.) the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the GG genotype of rs1176713; (o.) the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the GG genotype of rs1176713; (p.) the AG genotype of rs1150226 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the GG genotype of rs1176713; and, (q.) the AA genotype of rs1176719 and the AC genotype of rs17614942 and the GG genotype of rs1176713. 